Alternative Medicines Targeting Newcastle Disease in Poultry: A Review
Farhana Amin*, Tahira Kamal, Bilal
Javid, Khadija Yasmeen and Muhammad
Naeem Riaz
National Institute for Genomics and Advanced
Biotechnology (NIGAB), National Agricultural Research Center Islamabad (NARC),
44000, Pakistan
*For correspondence: farhana.phdbt35@iiu.edu.pk
Received 01 February 2024; Accepted 18 March 2024; Published 16 April
2024
Abstract
The poultry sector secures an important position in the
livestock industry providing major sources of protein; however, is always at
the risk of many viral diseases including Newcastle disease (ND), causing
substantial economic losses. This disease affects both commercial and backyard
poultry, with the latter contributing significantly to rural livelihoods. The
virulence of NDV is attributed to various factors, including the virus's
genetic diversity, posing challenges to vaccination strategies. Vaccines in
practice exhibit limitations leading to sporadic outbreaks and do not offer
complete cure. Additionally, imported vaccines may not match field strains,
highlighting the need for alternative approaches, such as natural medicines, to
enhance ND control strategies in Pakistan and other affected regions. Medicinal
plants are the gift of nature to fulfill food and therapeutic needs. Medicinal
plants are being used for centuries against different diseases. With
advancement in modern medicine these natural sources get overlooked.
Conventionally many plants are being used for treating diseases in domestic
poultry. Many plants have been tested form 2016–2024 against viral diseases.
The objective of this study is to give an overview of alternative medicines
being used by different countries to mitigate the loss caused by ND. © 2024 Friends Science Publishers
Keywords: Poultry growth;
Newcastle disease; Economic challenges; Vaccine limitations; Alternative medicines
Introduction
In the year 2023, the livestock sector played a
substantial role in the agricultural landscape, contributing 62.68 % to the
value added in agriculture and comprising 14.36% of the country's GDP. Within
the livestock industry, the poultry sector holds strategic importance, creating
employment opportunities for over 1.5 million individuals in Pakistan. Over the
past decade, this sector has experienced remarkable expansion, marked by a
significant investment exceeding Rs 1,056 billion and maintaining a remarkable
annual growth rate of 7.3%. Pakistan has now ascended to the eleventh position
globally in poultry production, indicating substantial potential for future
development and advancement Pakistan Economic Survey (2022–2023).
Despite the
rapid growth of the poultry sector in Pakistan, the industry consistently
challenges the forthcoming threat of viral diseases. Among these, Newcastle disease
(ND) stands out as one of the most destructive viral infections affecting
poultry worldwide (Mottet and Tempio 2017).
ND is a highly contagious and acute disease in birds, caused by the Newcastle
disease virus (NDV). It exhibits high morbidity and mortality rates, affecting
a diverse range of avian species. Additionally, it is a minor zoonosis, with
infected individuals experiencing conjunctivitis. The disease was initially
reported in Indonesia in 1926, and since then, the world has witnessed at least
four pandemics. Each outbreak is marked by the emergence of new genotypes (Ganar et al. 2014) (OIE 2009) causing
huge economic losses to the poultry industry.
ND leads to
weight loss, respiratory discomfort, and reduced egg production in poultry.
This disease is widespread in developing countries, posing a significant impact
on the poultry industry (Absalón et al. 2019). The
mortality and morbidity rates in a chicken flock exhibit significant variation,
ranging from 90% to 100% in inadequately vaccinated birds. Well-vaccinated
layers also experience declines in egg production due to the ND. The prevalence
of ND in developing countries poses a substantial challenge to the poultry
industry (Bessell et al. 2020).
This highly contagious disease continues to be a prominent threat to poultry
globally, resulting in significant economic losses for both commercial and
backyard poultry sectors in developed and developing countries (Khatun et al.
2022).
The current count of domestic poultry stands at 94.04
million, surpassing the figures recorded in both 2020 and 2021. In contrast,
the population of commercial poultry is significantly higher at 1,792.46
million (Pakistan Economic Survey 2022–2023). For generations, rural households
have kept poultry in their backyard, with indigenous chickens playing a crucial
role in the livelihoods of both poor urban and rural communities. However, the
growing commercialization of indigenous chicken farming in developing nations,
such as India, has led to a rise in the occurrence of infectious diseases like ND.
The ND continues to impact many backyard chicken flocks in the domestic poultry
community, despite vaccination efforts. This is particularly prevalent as these
chickens are typically maintained in multi-age group flocks within a free-range
system. Notably, there is a growing awareness and demand for organic farm
products in recent times (Mekala et al.
2018). In the Asian context, Pakistan is considered endemic for ND
infections in poultry. Both commercial and backyard flocks can harbor the
infection, with all viruses isolates from these sectors belonging to genotype VII.
Interestingly, backyard flocks may not exhibit apparent ND symptoms, although the
virus isolated from them carries a characteristic motif in the F-protein
associated with virulence. The transmission of virulent NDV into backyard
flocks is suspected to occur through frequent contact with commercial poultry.
Subsequently, the virus adapts within the backyard flocks, even though these
flocks do not manifest the typical ND disease. This scenario underscores the
complex dynamics of NDV in both commercial and backyard poultry sector (Munir et al. 2012). In Nepal, ND was
identified as the cause of 90% mortality in backyard flocks in 1992 (Alexander 2001). In Iran's Bushehr province, a
seroprevalence of 40% unvaccinated backyard chickens for NDV antibodies were
identified (Saadat et al. 2014).
The NDV
belongs to the avian paramyxovirus type-I (APMV-1) within the Avulavirus genus,
Paramyxovirinae subfamily, Paramyxoviridae family, and Mononegavirales order (Rima et al. 2019). The causative agent
NDV is characterized as an enveloped virus with a negative-sense,
single-stranded RNA genome that is approximately 15 kb in length. The
genome is responsible for the synthesis of six major structural proteins, which
are encoded in the 5 to 3 directions. These proteins comprise a large
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L), Hemagglutinin-Neuraminidase (HN), Fusion
protein (F), Matrix protein (M), Phosphoprotein (P), and Nucleoprotein (NP) (Kattenbelt et al. 2006; Dortmans et al.
2011).
The virulence of the virus is classified into three
pathotypes: the lentogenic strain, utilized as a vaccine strain, induces
asymptomatic infection the mesogenic strain leads to respiratory infection with
moderate mortality and the velogenic strain causes gastrointestinal lesions
(viscerotropic) or neurological infection, resulting in a 100% mortality rate.
The primary determinant of NDV isolates' virulence is the sequence at the F
cleavage site within positions 112–116 (Paldurai
et al. 2014).
The variation in cleavage sites serves as a key
determinant of the distinct virulence characteristics observed in lentogenic,
mesogenic, and velogenic strains. In the process of virus replication, inactive
precursor F glycoproteins, designated as F0, are generated within NDV
particles. To attain infectivity, these virus particles necessitate the
cleavage of F0 into two segments: F1 and F2 polypeptides. The cleavage
efficiency of the F0 glycoprotein is directly linked to the in vivo
virulence of the viruses (Leeuw et al.
2003).
The hypothesis suggests that the F0 glycoproteins in
highly pathogenic and can be cleaved by various proteases present in numerous
tissues and organs. Infections with these virulent viruses lead to widespread
dissemination throughout the chicken or embryo, causing damage to various
tissues and organs. In contrast, low-virulence ND viruses are susceptible only
to trypsin-like proteases, limiting infection to specific cell types in the
chicken or embryo. At the molecular level, the amino acid sequence at specific
glycoprotein sites is responsible for the pathogenicity of ND. The virus
exhibits a broad host range, capable of infecting approximately 241 species
across 27 orders, out of the total 50 orders of birds (Doan 2022).
In Pakistan, regular and thorough vaccination is a common
practice in the poultry industry to prevent the occurrence of diseases.
Nevertheless, the ND remains prevalent in poultry, including both commercial
broiler and layer operations (Farooq et al. 2014).
During the 2011–2012 periods in the Punjab province of Pakistan, ND led to the
deaths of 45 million broiler chickens, resulting in a significant economic loss
of 6 billion PKR. In Pakistan, there has been a shift in NDV isolates, with
sub-genotype VIIi viruses replacing the previously common genotype XIIIa
isolates observed from 2009–2011. Since 2012, sub-genotype VIIi has become the
predominant sub-genotype, indicating the emergence of a fifth panzootic (Munir et al. 2016).
Currently, live attenuated vaccines, such as the La
Sota or Mukteswar strain, followed by the administration of Mukteswar or
Komarov strain, are in practice. While these vaccines provide immunity to
day-old chicks, they do not fully control the disease, leading to sporadic
outbreaks. Because of the incompatibility of field and vaccine strains,
inadequate vaccination methods, and the occurrence of novel genotypes under
strong immunological pressure, vaccination failures have raised doubts about
the effectiveness of these vaccines (Miller et al.
2007). The genomic diversity of NDV increases the possibility of
diagnostic failures, resulting in unidentified infections (Umar 2017).
In Pakistan, imported vaccines are being used for
poultry diseases rather making indigenous vaccines. These substandard imported
vaccinations are not effective in controlling the disease because of incompatibility
with field strains. The idea of biosecurity is exclusive to certain larger
farms. The role that wild birds play in the spread of disease is unknown to the
general public. Despite the widespread use of both live and inactivated ND
vaccines, the rising frequency of outbreaks and high prevalence of the disease
demonstrate that these immunization approaches are ineffective in controlling
the disease. But these vaccines are produced with technology based on
embryonated eggs, which have several drawbacks, including low yields,
labor-intensiveness, potential for biohazard, and frequent impurities (Pandey et al. 2010).
Genotype VII of NDV is still common in domestic
poultry in Asia, and it was discovered that these strains are the same as those
that were isolated in the 1990s (Shabbir et
al. 2013). According to reports, co-infections between NDV and H7N3
are occurring in flocks of poultry; the rate of co-infections between NDV and
H7N3 is highest, followed by NDV. Therefore, identifying the common strain and
preparing vaccines are essential for maximizing the effectiveness of
vaccinations (Channa et al. 2020).
The development of a different strategy is desperately needed in
order to prevent such vaccination failure. The World Health Organization (WHO)
estimates that over 75% of people worldwide use natural medicines, mostly from
different backgrounds. The formulations for pharmaceutical medications that
protect against different viral diseases, such as the influenza virus and NDV,
have been standardized by various countries. Even though synthetic chemical components
are utilized extensively in current products, it is still important to consider
the effectiveness of herbal products that have the fewest negative effects (Yasmin et al. 2020).
In order to avoid problems such as vaccination failure
and disease spread, there is need to explore alternative sources of medicines
which are cheap, nontoxic can help to reduce the drug resistance and drug
residues problem. The most reliable alternative medicines include the use of
medicinal plants against ND. Medicinal plants are the gift of nature and from a
long time ago these botanical treasures have acted as natural pharmacy for
human and animal health care system. Numerous medicinal plants are being used
for treating ND which is discussed below.
Research
demonstrates the effect of Phyllanthus amarus against ND. The screening
of bioactive constituents was done by using n-hexane. The phytochemical
constituents of Phyllanthus amarus leaf was administered to two groups
of birds one was given by prophylactic approach and the other group was treated
as therapeutic. Symptoms of bodyweight alterations and % mortality was
recorded. Results showed that Prophylactic approach gives lower % mortality
than therapeutic approach It was concluded that n-hexane bioactive constituents
of P. amarus present substantial antiviral effect against ND virus in
broiler chickens and that prophylactic administration at 500 mg/L might be a
safer approach in utilization of the leaf extract against ND (Faeji et al. 2019).
In a study
Iresine herbstii from Amaranthaceae family was used to analyze anti NDV
activity. Phytochemical analysis including TPC, TFC and HPLC was performed to
evaluate the bioactive constituents of Iresine herbstii. Four
different solvents were used for extraction of bioactive compounds from which
ethanolic extract of Iresine herbstii showed variety of
phytoconstituents. TPC was present in higher concentration in acetone extract
than ethanolic extract. Similarly, TFC was present in higher concentration in
ethanolic extract. HPLC confirmed the presence of therapeutically important
phytoconstituents. In ovo
administration of acetone extract at 300 µg/mL
showed no mortality and 100% protection, similarly ethanolic extract of Iresine
herbstii at dose 400 µg/mL give
100% protection against NDV which was induced by using live virus showed no
mortality. At dose 600 mg/mL of plant extract causes toxicity. Phytochemical
analysis demonstrates the presence of important bioactive constituents which
are responsible for the observed antiviral effect against NDV (Andleeb et al. 2020).
An in ovo study report that methanolic
extract of Boswellia dalzielii stem bark extract and their fractions
were used to treat ND to analyze cytotoxicity, prophylactic, therapeutic and
neutralization activities, whereas the fractions were employed to analyze
cytotoxicity and neutralization potential. The plant extract at the dose of 50 mg/mL
possesses more pronounced antiviral potential against ND and gave 100%
protection whereas 100 mg/mL dose proves to be toxic to the embryo, furthermore
the extract showed maximum protection than the fractions. Qualitative analysis
of bioactive constituents showed the presence of polyphenols, steroids and saponins
which are responsible for anti-NDV effect (Ohemu
et al. 2020).
A study was
conducted to assess the antiviral potential of Glycyrrhiza glabra leaves
for treating ND through in ovo assay.
Bioactive formulations were administered to 9-day old chick embryos and ND was
induced by using velogenic pathotype to all treated groups except control group
followed by candling to check embryo survival. Results showed 100% mortality in
negative control group after administration of velogenic strain. Whereas %
protection of treatment group was significantly higher at dose of 300 µg/mL and effect was dose dependent. In the
same way no viruses were found in HA titer, the plant extracts in treated group
(Ashraf et al. 2017).
Scutellaria baicalensis belongs to family Lamiaceae used in conventional therapies. This study was designed
to evaluate the potential of Scutellaria baicalensis against NDV in
vitro by employing ND induced embryonic fibroblasts followed by
fluorescence-activated cells. Plant therapeutic effect against ND and cell
toxicity was analyzed. The Scutellaria baicalensis at the dose of 1 × 2−2
mg/mL was not toxic to cells and strongly inhibited ND and ultimately reduced
the prevalence of ND. This plant can be used as a potential candidate for
developing drugs against NDV (Jia et al.
2016). Different concentrations of Scutellaria baicalensis showed
varying levels of blocking, neutralizing and inhibition rate. The minimal
concentration 1 × 2−2 mg/mL of Scutellaria baicalensis
presented 100% blocking rate, 100.41% neutralization rate while inhibition rate
was 103.70% (Jia et al. 2016).
Tribulus
terrestris belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae was used to treat
ND. The alcoholic extract was subjected to phytochemical analysis which
confirms the presence of therapeutically important bioactive compounds.
Furthermore, these extracts were used to analyze In vivo anti NDV effect
in vero cell culture followed by HA titer. Different doses from 20–80 µL/mL were mixed with Lasota strain of
the NDV and applied to cell lines. Standard conditions were maintained for cell
lines. Results showed that pretreatment of T. terristris give more
pronounced antiviral effect in vero cell line at the dose below 80 µL/mL and this plant has ability to
control NDV as preventive measure (Malik et al. 2018).
This study
was performed to investigate the invitro anti NDV potential of alcoholic
bioactive formulation of Polyalthia longifolia against vero cell lines
and to analyze the potential procedure involve in action. Cell toxicity,
mechanism of virus infection and quantification of viral RNA was established. A
non-lethal dose of Polyalthia longifolia leaves extract restrict
replication of virus at initial stages of virus attack. The test plant
conclusively showed promising potential against NDV at the initial stages like
invasion and budding stage making Polyalthia longifolia a promising
candidate for antiviral drug development (Yadav et
al. 2020).
A study was carried out to analyze the effect of Nigella sativa
(6%), curcumin (1%), and Orego sol was administered to live chicks with a
positive and negative control group. After administration a pronounced
betterment in immunity of birds were observed. in the same way an enhanced
expression of cytokine genes upregulate immuno-stimulation action,
ultimately reduce NDV pathogenesis. When chicks were given Orego sol®, there
was a greater evident reduction in viral shedding and an improvement in their
immune responses (Zain et al. 2024).
A study reported the application of
herbal medicines against ND in backyard poultry. The effected birds were
administered consortium of Phyllanthus amarus, Cuminum cyminum seeds and
Allium cepa pulp mixed with jaggery. The birds were also provided with C.
cyminum water solution 1 g/100 mL. Results showed herbal remedy proved very
effective to recover the effected birds within 3–5 days. Results confirmed the
potential of medicinal plants in for control of ND in backyard poultry (Mekala et al. 2018).
A research
study describes the phytochemical analysis and immunomodulatory effect of Nilavembu
Kudineer Chooranam (NKC) by using sixty day-old unsexed country chicken.
Chickens were divided into six groups each group have 10 chickens. The groups
were treated as positive, negative and treated groups. The three treated group
were provided with Nilavembu Kudineer Chooranam (NKC) @ 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mL/kg
of body weight for five consecutive days before vaccination. Results showed
that pretreated group (1.0 mL/kg) presented enhanced titer in comparison with
vaccine control. These findings showed that NKC at the dose of 1.0 mL/kg for 5
days in drinking water prior to vaccination enhance the immune response in
backyard chicken.
A study
reported that alcoholic extract of different flowers was used to analyze the
antiviral activity against NDV by employing in
ovo method. HA titer revealed the antiviral effect of Rosa damascena
Miller, Achillea millefolium, Woodfordia fruticosa Kurtz and Bombax ceiba L.
contrary to NDV. The phytoconstituents including alkaloids, ethers and terpenoids
detected through GCMS might be active compounds in treating NDV (Nazir et al. 2021).
The bioactive
compounds from the two Tanzanian Artabotrys species, A. monteiroae and A.
modestus (Annonaceae) were screened for their antiviral activities against
NDV in ovo (in the egg). For ND assay, the allantoic fluids from the
specimens were further harvested to determine viral infection. The tested
compounds also exhibited in ovo antiviral activity against NDV, showing
viral titer reduction at a range of 1:128–1:256 in the hemagglutination test,
indicating 16- and 8-times viral load decline compared with untreated embryo
(positive control; 1:2048). Further studies to determine the mode of action and
toxicity of the potent compounds need to be undertaken towards the development
of such antiviral agents (Nyandoro 2017).
Research was conducted in which methanolic extracts of the leaves and
fruit of Aegle marmelos (Bael) were
employed for analyzing qualitative and quantitative phytochemical constituents
and their antiviral efficacy NDV. The fruit
extract of A. marmelos showed
considerable antioxidant activity which reflect the presence of significant
quantity of polyphenoles in leaves and fruit extract. Enhanced doses (90 µg/mL) of laves and fruits of Aegle marmelos proved very effective against
NDV. In silico analysis also give
better affinity of compounds with HN protein by satisfying required condition
therefore it was established that bioactive compounds of Aegle marmelos have potential to be used as
alternative medicine for treating NDV (Andleeb et
al. 2021).
Two different extracts and an isolated compound from Andrographis
paniculata were employed against NDV through in ovo assay by using
ribavirin as negative control. NDV2K35 mesogenic strain was used for inducing
disease. Results showed Table 1: Medicinal plants
used to treat ND in poultry
Plant Name |
Strain |
Plant part |
Dose of administration |
Trial |
References |
Curcuma longa, Coriander sativum, Allium sativum,
Andrographis paniculata, and Trigonella foenum
graceum |
(NDV) Genotype XIII, |
Whole plant |
500 mg/mL |
In ovo |
(Priya et al. 2022) |
Anemarrhena rhizome, Astragalus root and Flos chrysanthemi indici |
NDV (F48E9 strain) |
Root Root Root |
8 mg/kg |
DF-1 fibroblast cell line |
(Wang et al. 2016) |
Folium isatidis Forsythia suspense Houttuynia cordata Thunb, Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi Lonicerae japonicae Flos. |
NDV strain |
stem leaf root stem leaf root flower |
15.6 mg/mL |
chick embryo fibroblast |
(Lv et al. 2019) |
Radix
scutellariae Herba
agastaches Flos
chrysanthemi indici |
(BHK-21), (HeLa) chicken DF-1 fibroblast cell. |
Root Over ground Flower |
80 mg/mL |
Chicken |
(Wang et al. 2016) |
Phyllanthus
amarus |
wild NDV (Kudu strain |
Leaf |
500 mg/L |
Chicken |
(Faeji et al. 2019) |
Glycyrrhiza glabra |
|
leaf |
300 µg/mL |
|
(Ashraf et al. 2017) |
Iresine herbstii |
Lasota strain |
|
300-400 mg/mL |
In ovo |
(Andleeb et al. 2020) |
Aegle
marmelos |
HN of NDV |
Leaf fruit |
90 µg/mL |
In ovo |
(Andleeb et al. 2021) |
Andrographis paniculata |
NDV2K35 mesogenic |
Leaves |
2.5 µg/mL |
In ovo |
(Nagajothi et al. 2020) |
Andrographis paniculata |
NDV2K35 mesogenic |
leaves |
1-5 µg/mL |
In vivo fibroblast
cell |
(Nagajothi et al. 2023) |
Scutellaria baicalensis |
La Sota strain IV |
Whole plant |
1 × 2−2
mg/mL |
embryonic fibroblasts
cells |
(Jayaraman
et al. 2014) |
Tribulus terrestris |
La Sota Strain |
Whole plant |
20-80 µL/mL |
vero cell lines |
|
Polyalthia longifolia |
NDV/Hisar/2015 |
leaves |
10 µg/mL |
vero cell lines |
(Yadav et al. 2020) |
Nigella sativa (6%), curcumin (1%), and Orego sol |
vNDV strain |
seeds |
6% 1% |
chickens |
(Zain Eldeen et
al. 2024) |
Phyllanthus amarus, Cuminum cyminum seeds and Allium
cepa pulp |
|
Whole plant Seed pulp |
1 g/100 mL |
chickens |
(Mekala et al. 2018) |
Nilavembu Kudineer Chooranam (NKC |
(D58 strain |
- |
1.0 mL/kg |
chicken |
(Kavinilava et al. 2017) |
that there
was 100% survival rate and no virus was observed in HA titer furthermore RTPCR
confirmed these results. This study revealed the anti NDV potential of aqueous
extract of A. paniculata, andrographolide compound through column
chromatography (Nagajothi et al. 2020).
In another
study antiviral activity of A. paniculata against mesogenic strain of
NDV was analyzed by using chicken embryo fibroblast cells. These extracts were
applied at the dose of 1–5 µg/mL. The
test samples showed anti NDV activity in the cell lines. Aqueous extract and
andrographolide standard exhibited antiviral activity at all doses and was
compared with standard antiviral drug ribavirin. Alcoholic bioactive
constituents were not effective in complete inhibition of NDV which was
confirmed by HA titer and expression of F gene (Nagajothi
et al. 2023).
In a study 25
different medicinal plants were employed against ND to test their antiviral
effect in fibroblast cell lines. The medicinal plants were tested individually
and in mixture form. Among them a group including Anemarrhena rhizome,
Astragalus root and Flos chrysanthemi indici in equal concentration and
another group of herbs including Radix scutellariae: Herba agastaches:
Rhizoma anemarrhenae were
in (1:1:2) ratio showed significant antiviral effect against ND. Additionally,
they are also employed in vivo to analyze their effect in live chickens.
Results showed that IgY titers were enhanced in plant extract treated group
with less morbidity rate and 63% protection in NDV-infected chicken (Wang et al.2016).
In this study
anti NDV efficacy of natural herbs was analyzed by using chick embryos.
Bioactive formulations were administered along with NDV strain Herts 33 and
kept on incubation followed by HA test and RTPCR. These Moringa peregrine,
Acacia cyanophylla, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and Pistacia atlantica presented no embryo death and HA
titer and efficiently reduced viral replication. Comparatively, Ceratonia
siliqua and E. camaldulensis was not very effective against ND (Al-Hadid 2016).
In another
study the efficacy of mixture of different herbs against NDV were tested. A
consortium was prepared by using different plants including Folium isatidis,
Forsythia suspense, Houttuynia cordata Thun, Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi and
Lonicerae japonicae Flos. The formula was used both in vitro in chick
embryo fibroblast and in vivo to analyze the expression of
interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3) and Interferons (IFNs) in NDV-induced
chickens. Results showed that mixture of herbs gives considerable anti NDV
activity invitro and enhanced IFTIM3 expression to restrict the viral
reproduction in NDV induced chickens. However, individually these plants
couldn’t exert antiviral activity but their formula showed dose dependent
effect. The formula used enhanced the expression of IFNs post infection and
their antibodies to boost the immune system (Lv et
al. 2019).
In In a recent
study a combination of medicinal plants including Curcuma longa, Coriander
sativum, Allium sativum, A. paniculata, and Trigonella foenum graceum were inoculated in
embryonated chicken eggs to evaluate their synergistic anti NDV effect. The
finding of this study elaborated that alcoholic extract showed considerable
reduction in virus titers and treated group did not show observable viruses.
The extract at the dose of 500 µg/mL showed
0% mortality. Phytochemical analysis revealed the occurrence of alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins, tannins and terpenoids etc.
which reported to have antiviral efficacy. This study focused on the use of
alternative medicine in order to mitigate drug resistance, drug residue and
other associated infections. Additionally in vivo studies are required
to confirm these herbs against ND (Priya et
al. 2022).
Conclusion
Ethno-veterinary medicines presented promising antiviral
efficacy against NDV. The varying nature of bioactive phytoconstituents showed
synergistic effect in mitigating ND. Numerous research studies demonstrate the
anti NDV effect of bioactive compounds by inhibiting the NDV replication and
reduction in the symptoms associated with infection. Additionally, the
utilization of botanical remedies corresponds to growth trend of natural and
sustainable pharmaceutical substitutes in animal healthcare. Harnessing plants'
therapeutic properties resolves issues with drug resistance and residual
effects in poultry products while also providing a more affordable alternative
and lowering reliance on synthetic medications. Domestically, many plants
including Coriander sativum, Allium sativum and Allium cepa, Curcuma longa and Aloe vera
are being used for treating ailments in livestock and poultry. In this review
28 different plants are used individually and in combination against NDV which
presented novel antiviral activities and pronounced improvement in immunity
(Table 1). Furthermore, these phytochemical constituents were administered in
three different ways such as in ovo, in vitro and in vivo. It is
suggested that supplementation of alternative sources of medicines is required
to combat the vaccination failure and drug resistance. It is a need of the time
to explore more botanical treasures and there is need to isolate lead compounds
exhibiting antiviral properties from medicinal plant. These bio drugs can be
used in poultry feed which could be serve as an immune booster to avoid lethal
diseases. Incorporating traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches
can pave the way for the development of effective herbal remedies for NDV. In
conclusion as research in this field progresses, the integration of medicinal
plants into veterinary practices may offer a sustainable and natural solution
for combating NDV.
Acknowledgements
The first author FA acknowledged TK, BJ and MNR for
providing technical support for writing this review.
Author Contributions
FA presented the main idea and write original article.
TK, BJ and MNR help in providing technical support, editing and reviewing the
paper.
Conflicts of Interest
All authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data Availability
Data will be available on demand
Ethics Approval
Not applicable in this paper
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